Blog Four: The Truman Years, the Eisenhower Years and the Sixties

Textbook Reading:
             Chapter 26 of our textbook, American Horizons, talks about the 1950s. Many important things happened during the 1950s and during the Eisenhower administration. The Korean War, a result of the Cold War, was in a bloody stalemate. Eisenhower debated using atomic weapons, however, his advisors said it would only make things worse. Instead there was a ceasefire, and North and South Korea were split at the 38th parallel. Another result of the cold war was the arms race. The arms race was a competition between the United States and the Soviet Union which produced enough atomic weapons to destroy the population of the world many times over. There was also decolonization, which lead to the independence of new countries. However, many of these new nations leaned toward communism. Many uprisings and civil wars occurred in these developing nations, and one by one they began falling to communism. This became known as the Domino Theory. The Red scare was also spreading throughout America. Senator Joseph McCarthy became the face of anticommunist hysteria. The sinister turn in government efforts to control communism within the states was known as McCarthyism. Many Americans who had suspicions of being communist were put on trial during this time.
               Birthrates skyrocketed after World War Two, and as a result, the baby boomer generation arose. The USSR experienced this too, they called theirs the "Sputnik generation." During this time there was affluence, health improvements, and an extended period of peace. "Miracle drugs" such as penicillin and the polio vaccine were being introduced, and there was great suburban migration, where colored people filled the inner cities. Many professionals and businesses left for suburbs, creating a decline of downtowns, abandoned buildings, deteriorating neighborhoods and increased crime. This became known as "white flight". White flight is when white people left the multicultural cities for more racially homogeneous suburbs. Suburbs continued to grow due to the demand of new technologies, however. The American people had an appetite for consumption, and consumption was the single most important contributor to America's economic growth. Mass production represented American culture worldwide as American products traveled throughout the world.
               In the 1950s there were many powerful corporations in the American culture of consumption. One of these corporations was General Electric. GE produced hundreds of different kinds of products, such as appliances and electronics. Although American economy was flourishing, not everyone was experiencing it. There were high unemployment rates and poverty in the "other America", which included the elderly, minorities and rural Americans. Technology kept improving during the 1950s as well. The automobile industry kept improving and became a critical link to postwar consumer economy. The television became the most powerful entertainment medium, and advertisements for products began to be shown in television shows. Many, but not all, Americans experienced rising salaries, greater access to education and high rates of employment. Religion played a major role in life in the 1950s. During this time, an act was passed in making "In God We Trust" the nation's official motto, and featured it on all US currency.
               Just like Rosie the Riveter was an icon for women in World War Two, 1950s white suburban housewives and mothers were Cold War icons. Domestic consumption was encouraged to be the best means for suburban women to participate in public life and fight communism. The purchase and use of appliances began to grow, and women became active dealers of them. They also sold Tupperware and real-estate. However, many mothers, especially minority mothers, remained in the workplace. In the 1950s, white collar jobs exceeded blue collar jobs for the first time ever. Rock n' Roll and Elvis Presley became very popular, and the Civil Rights Movement was getting bigger. The Supreme Court case Brown vs. Board of Education declared separate is not equal, and called for the desegregation of schools. In Little Rock, Arkansas, 9 black students with a federal court order tried to desegregate the city's central high school. The students were not allowed in the school, and were being threatened by the white occupants of the school. President Eisenhower then stepped in. He sent soldiers from the 101st Airborne to escort the children to class, and they stayed in Little Rock for the entire school year. The Montgomery bus boycott also took place during this time.
               In this chapter of American Horizons, culture is the obvious main theme. During the Cold War, communism tensions were at an all time high. The Red scare was very prevalent, and McCarthyism was underway. People were terrified of communism and what it would bring to the country, so they put people on trial if they were suspected to have communist ties. This shows how the Cold War effected the American people as a whole. The Cold War also effected American women. White suburban housewives and mothers became an icon for the Cold War, and women began to sell things such as Tupperware and real-estate. Technology in the 1950s was improving as well. New medicine was developed, such a penicillin and the polio vaccine, and new corporations emerged. Television became a huge part of American life. It became the largest entertainment medium, and advertisements began to be shown during television shows. People, especially white people, began moving into the suburbs. Unlike in previous years when urbanization was at a high, people and businesses were now leaving the cities for suburbs. Another major part of culture that was changing was Civil Rights. Many steps were being taken to achieve equal rights for African Americans. The Supreme court case Brown vs. Board of Education was a huge step in the movement. This case declared separate is not equal and called for the desegregation of schools. Many people were taking matters into their own hands to achieve rights, such as Rosa Parks who refused to give up her seat on a bus. This action led to the Montgomery bus boycott, and eventually the desegregation of the public bus system. All of these things happening in the 1950s express how America was changing and growing. New technologies were being introduced to the people which made their lives better and easier, and a history of racism in the country was being fought for change.
               Chapter 27 of American Horizons is all about the 1960s. In November 1963, President John F. Kennedy was assassinated by Lee Harvey Oswald. The whole country was in heartache and mourning JFK's death. JFK was the first Roman Catholic president, which made some people uneasy. He and his family, however, soon won the hearts of Americans. JFK created the New Frontier, which was his phrase for a collection of programs to expand economic and social opportunities in the United States. He mastered the medium of television, and people felt like he was actually in their homes talking to them about politics. JFK also was in office during the Bay of Pigs invasion and the Cuban Missile Crisis, and created the peace corps. What people don't know about JFK is that he suffered from Addison's disease, which is a serious adrenal disorder, and he had many sexual affairs both inside and outside of the White House.
             The Civil Rights movement was still going strong during the 1960s. There were sit-ins in local restaurants in the south, and the freedom rides began. Freedom rides were when people were trying to desegregate interstate bus travel and bus stations. Attorney General Robert Kennedy, JFK's brother, ordered US Marshalls to protect the freedom riders. James Meredith was the first black student to attend the University of Mississippi. There were riots at the school by whites, and JFK called the Nation Guard to restore order. Meredith graduated in 1963. Martin Luther King Jr. led the march on Washington on August 28, 1963 and gave his "I Have a Dream" speech.
               After JFK was assassinated, Lyndon B. Johnson came into office. He created the Great Society, which was a series of social and economic reforms to end racial discrimination, expand educational opportunities, end hunger and poverty and ,make healthcare available for all. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was also passed, which allowed segregation in restaurants, overnight accommodations and transportation. In 1965, Medicare developed. Medicare is a health plan providing universal hospital insurance for Americans over the age of 65. In 1966, Medicaid was developed, which is when the federal government provides states matching grants to pay for medical costs of poor people of all ages. People in the 1960s had food stamps, which feed people whose income fell below the government calculated poverty line. Miranda v. Arizona was a court case that took place in 1966. It expanded the 5th amendment, which is the prohibition of self-incrimination. The case established that a person arrested for a crime had to be read their rights. In the early to mid 1960s, the economy was booming. However, towards the end of the decade economic growth fell to under 4% and inflation exceeded 6%.
               There were many advances in technology in the 1960s. Color television was introduced, satellites, early version of government internet, first successful heart transplant, improved vaccinations for children, and the possibility for new treatments for cancer, diabetes and kidney disease. The Cold War was also going on. The Vietnam War started, and the Space Race with the Soviet Union also started. NAASA was created to explore space, and the United States successfully landed Apollo 11 on the moon, and also successfully landed the first man on the moon. The Civil Rights movement began to take a new approach. Black power emerged, which was the combination of racial pride and forceful, even violent resistance to anti-black violence. Malcolm X emerged as a new civil rights leader who promoted violence to earn rights. The Black Panther party rose, which advocated self-determination and armed self-defense against police brutality. Movements for Mexican and women's rights also emerged. Young people began part of the New Left, which was a group who intentionally distanced themselves from the ideological infighting, communism and labor organizing of the old left. Hippies were around in the 1960s, and people took mind altering drugs, such as LSD. These are all part of counter-culture, which is racial, gender, sexual and cultural protest.
               In this chapter of American Horizons, culture, politics and economics are all themes present. Culture is a main theme of this chapter. There were many advances in technology and medicine, just like in the 1950s. Some of these advancements were the development of colored television, satellites, early version of the internet, first successful transplant, improved vaccinations for children, and the possibility of new treatments for cancer, diabetes and kidney disease. There were many approaches in civil rights for blacks, Mexicans and women. The Civil Rights movement for blacks took a turn from nonviolent to violent with the development of the Black Panthers, Black Power and Malcolm X. The government was also getting involved with the movements, and stepping in to help.
               Politics and economics were also themes present in the chapter. The economy was booming in the early to mid 1960s, however, as the end of the decade neared, the economy wasn't doing as well as it was. Economic growth fell to below 4%, and inflation was above 6%. JFK and LBJ both instituted programs to improve life for Americans. These plans were the New Frontier(JFK) and the Great Society(LBJ). The Cold War was reaching new heights, such as the Vietnam, the Space Race, Cuban Missile Crisis and Bay of Pigs Invasion.
Freedom Riders:
               In 1961, blacks and whites participated in the non-violent freedom rides. They rode public busses into the deep south in attempts to desegregate bus travel. The court case of Morgan v. Virginia declared that there should be no segregation on busses, however, the south did not follow this ruling. They traveled on the Greyhound and Trailways bus services, and the deeper south they drove, the more racism they saw. Before the rides, the people participating had to go through training to prepare for what they may encounter. However, they never really knew what to expect. They were blind to the reality of racism. The documentary Freedom Riders, by PBS explores the freedom riders journey.
               The first freedom ride began in D.C. and was planned to end in the deep south. The first few days of their trip was uneventful. When they reached Atlanta, they met Martin Luther King Jr. He told them that there was going to be trouble in Alabama, and he advised them not to continue to Alabama. Of the two busses that were traveling to Birmingham, only one bus made it. When the one bus arrived to the bus station, 200 men surrounded the bus and beat the riders. The other bus never made it to Birmingham. A car was in front of the bus and kept dodging in front of it to keep it from passing. The bus then got flat tires, and the bus driver walked away from the bus and told the passengers to fend for themselves. There was an immediate flash fire on the bus, and the passengers barely made it off. The Trailways bus that made it to Birmingham had no idea that the Greyhound bus was burned in Anniston. Bull Connor was the Commissioner of public safety for the city of Birmingham. He believed that Whites and blacks needed to be kept separate. The FBI even knew of the violence, but did nothing to protect the riders. Jim Peck, the leader of the riders, was beaten to a pulp and he still said to continue the ride. However, the drivers of the busses refused to drive, and they were forced to end their ride. When the riders got to the airport, there was still a mob, and even a bomb threat on the plane. Despite all of this, they arrived in New Orleans by plane.
               Although the first freedom ride was a fail, people didn't want to give up. Diane Nash was the leader and strategist of the second wave of student freedom riders. She said that you don't start something you can't finish, and therefore they will continue the freedom rides. This second wave of riders would be traveling from Nashville to Birmingham. When they arrived in Birmingham, Bull Connor arrested the riders, saying it was for their "own good". The freedom riders were then taken out of jail, and Bull Connor brought them out of state lines. He said the could catch a train back to Nashville, and the riders said they would see him back in Birmingham. When they arrived back in Birmingham, no drivers would drive the busses, and the riders were stuck in Birmingham. The KKK was in the bus station surrounding the riders. Floyd Mann, a member of Alabama's government at the time, said Alabama had the means, ability and will to protect the riders. When the riders arrived in Montgomery, they saw no one. Then, the mob came out and went after the reporters, and then the riders. During the brawl, RFK's administrative assistant, John Seigenthaler, was knocked unconscious. The U.S. Marshalls were then brought in. When the Civil Rights movement heard about this, they could no let it pass, and therefore backed the freedom riders. Many of the riders wanted King to continue the ride with them, but he says he can't because he is on probation. The city of Montgomery was under Marshall law, and the riders were provided with protection when traveling from Montgomery to Jackson, Mississippi. The fear of Mississippi was much worse than that of Alabama. Ross Barnett, the governor of Mississippi at the time, arrested the freedom riders for a breach of peace, and sent them to Parchman prison. He thought he could intimidate the riders by sending them to Parchman, but he was wrong. More and more busses kept coming. RFK called for a cooling off process of the freedom rides, but the riders refused. People from all over the country arrived in Jackson as freedom riders. As a result, the segregation signs began to come down, and the busses were desegregated.
               This documentary by PBS contains themes of culture and demography. The culture of the deep south was full of racism. When the freedom riders made their way deeper in the south, southerners did not want them to go any further. They didn't want the freedom riders to change the culture of the south, so they terrorized them and brutalized them, but the freedom riders didn't give up. The freedom riders consisted of blacks, and whites who were willing to sacrifice themselves for civil rights. All of the freedom riders were riding for what they believed was right. The people in the mobs who attacked the freedom riders were white southern men. The freedom riders were trying to change the way of the south, and desegregate it piece by piece.          
Textbook Readings:
               Chapter 28 of American Horizons is about the Vietnam War. In 1954, Vietnam was divided into two states, North communist Vietnam and South non-communist Vietnam. The Domino theory was in full effect, but the United States didn't want to go to war with Vietnam because the Korean War just ended. However, the U.S. slowly started to increase its military commitments in Vietnam in 1964, and eventually the U.S went to war with Vietnam. The United States tried to defeat North Vietnam by using modern technology warfare, however, the North Vietnamese soldiers practiced guerilla warfare. They did not wear uniforms which made it hard for U.S. soldiers to distinguish them from South Vietnamese peasants. Many Americans opposed the Vietnam War. Some men burned their draft cards in retaliation against the war. During the war, the Tet Offensive and My Lai Massacre took place. The Tet Offensive is when North Vietnamese attacked throughout South Vietnam, and the My Lai Massacre is when American troops massacred 504 unarmed Vietnamese villagers.
               On the American home front during the war, there was a presidential election happening. Eugene McCarthy was running against Johnson, and Johnson withdrew from the race. Robert Kennedy was also running, along with Richard Nixon. During this time, Robert Kennedy and Martin Luther King were both assassinated. Nixon went on to win the election, and in 1975, communist North Vietnam wont the Vietnam War. Nixon practiced détente, which is the relaxation of tension with the Soviet Union. After the war ended in Vietnam, the United States continued to aid Asian countries to resist communism, but would expect them to assume "primary responsibility of providing the manpower for their own defense." The United States expanded war into Cambodia and Laos, as a result, the American people fought back. Many Americans disagreed with this expansion of war, and many protested. In Kent State, the Ohio National Guard shot at unarmed students who were protesting the Cambodian expansion. While the chaos of the Vietnam War and Cambodian expansion, president Nixon was involved in a scandal. The Watergate scandal of 1971-1973 was when White House operatives committed a series of illegal surveillance acts against political rivals in the Watergate building (Washington office building). This scandal resulted in president Nixon's resignation.             
               This chapter included themes of politics and culture. The decision to go to war with Vietnam raised a lot of controversy on the American home front. Many men burned their draft cards in retaliation against the war. Some men even fled the country. This has never happened before with any other war that America was involved in. This shows that Americans were completely against the war and wanted absolutely no part of it, and they would go to crazy lengths to avoid being involved with it. Times got so chaotic when the Ohio National Guard opened fire on unarmed students who were protesting Cambodian expansion. The war, and communism, made everyone paranoid. President Nixon thought he was doing a good thing to stop communism by expanding into Cambodia and Laos. He didn't imagine that his actions would lead to the shooting of students. He also got involved with a scandal at Watergate. This scandal ruined his career, and he was forced to resign as president of the United States.
Jonathan Haidt Explains Our Contentious Culture:
               Jonathan Haidt is a social psychologist and professor of ethical leadership at New York University's Stern School of Business. In this interview, Haidt explains the difference between Liberals and Conservatives in American politics. He says that no matter what political views people have, everyone can agree that the country is in a mess and politics is not making it any better. In Haidt's studies, he found that liberals are higher in openness to experience than conservatives are. People who are high in openness to experience crave diversity, travel, novelty, culture and more. People who are low in this crave things that are familiar. He also says that liberals misunderstand conservatives more than the other way around.
               Haidt is the author of the book The Righteous Mind: Why Good People are Divided by Politics and Religion. In his book, he says that dividing people into teams is good because people come to love their teammates, and their hostility towards others is minimal. However, tribalism is made for war, and people see the other "team" as evil, and the switches flip. We are all born hypocrites, according to Haidt, and we believe the nonsense we tell other people because we believe what people think of us is more important than the reality. In a political sense, moral division exists, and the other side is seen as evil (conservatives and liberals). Compromise is necessary, but we can't compromise with evil. People on both sides of the political spectrum believe they are right. This is known as consensual hallucination. In Haidt's studies, he found that conservatives value care, liberty, fairness, loyalty, authority and sanctity equally. He says that this is the reason they do a better job convincing people they are the party of moral values. The right side of the political spectrum sees government as evil because they punish success and follow re-distributive policies. Haidt says he was a liberal, but when he started doing research he found that conservatives were more in touch with human nature.  
               This interview contains the themes of culture and politics. Haidt explores why conservatives and liberals are the way they are, and why they always think they are right. The kind of person you are ultimately will determine which side of the political spectrum you will be on. People who crave things such as diversity, travel, novelty and culture are more likely to be liberals than conservatives. People who crave things that are familiar to them are more likely to be conservatives. Haidt also found that conservatives value care, liberty, fairness, loyalty, authority, and sanctity equal, unlike liberals. Ultimately, the moral values and beliefs you have will contribute to which side of the political spectrum you will be on.
Bibliography:
Bezis-Selfa, John, Greenwood, Janette Thomas, Kirk, Andrew, Purcell, Sarah J., Schaller,
               Michael, Schulzinger, Robert D., Sheehan-Dean, Aaron. American Horizons.
               New York: Oxford University Press, 2013. Print.
Diego, Ken, dir. "Jonathan Haidt Explains our Contentious Culture." Moyers and Company. Bill
               Moyers Journal. 3 February 2012. Web. 24 March 2014.
Nelson, Stanley, dir. "Freedom Riders." American Experience. PBS, 2011. Web. 24 March 2014.